Poaching of Asian elephants for Ivory

The continually growing human population of tropical Asia has encroached on the elephant's dense but dwindling forest habitat. About 20% of the world's human population lives in or near the present range of the Asian elephant.

Conflict, loss of land and hunting



Fierce competition for living space has resulted in human suffering, a dramatic loss of forest cover, and reduced Asian elephant numbers to between 25,600 and 32,750 animals in the wild.
Asian elephant populations are highly fragmented, with fewer than 10 populations comprising more than 1,000 individuals in a contiguous area, greatly decreasing their chances for survival.

Most of the national parks and reserves where elephants occur are too small to accommodate viable elephant populations. The conversion of forested areas to agricultural use also leads to serious elephant-human conflicts. In India, up to 300 people are killed by elephants each year.

Habitat loss and fragmentation

In the face of rapidly growing human populations, the Asian elephants' habitat is shrinking fast and wild elephant populations are mostly small, isolated, and unable to mingle as ancient migratory routes are cut off by human settlements.

Large development projects (such as dams, roads, mines and industrial complexes), plantations and spreading human settlements have fragmented what was once contiguous elephant habitat into small fragments.

Incidents of elephants raiding crops and villages are on the rise. This causes losses to human property and, sometimes, human lives. Retaliation by

villagers often results in killings of these elephants. Experts already consider such confrontations to be the leading cause of elephant deaths in Asia.

In some countries, the government provides compensation for crop damage or deaths caused by elephants, but there is still often strong political pressure on wildlife authorities to eliminate elephants near populated regions. As human populations increase, elephant-human conflicts are likely to rise.


Illegal hunting and trade
In Asian elephants, only males carry tusks and therefore poaching is aimed exclusively at males. Selective removal of tuskers for their ivory may lead to an increase in the proportion of tuskless males in the population.

Poaching of Asian elephants for ivory and meat remains a serious problem in many countries, especially in southern India (where 90% of the bulls are tuskers) and in north-east India where some people eat elephant meat.

A 1997 TRAFFIC report indicated that, seven years after international trade in ivory was banned, illegal commerce continued in the Far East, with South Korea and Taiwan being major markets. However, most of this illegal ivory appeared to come from African sources, rather than from Asian elephants.

Capture of wild elephants

The capture of wild elephants for domestic use has become a threat to wild populations where numbers have been seriously reduced. India, Vietnam, and Myanmar have banned capture in order to conserve their wild herds, but in Myanmar elephants are still caught each year for the timber industry or the illegal wildlife trade.

Unfortunately, crude capture methods have led to a high mortality level. Efforts are being made not only to improve safety but also to encourage captive breeding rather than taking from the wild. With nearly 30% of the remaining Asian elephants in captivity, attention needs to be paid to improved care and, where appropriate, reintroduction of individuals into the wild.

Genetic threat

There has been concern about the genetic effects of reduced numbers of male big tuskers. The danger arises when they are eliminated, and poachers find it worthwhile to kill immature males for their small tusks. When tuskers are killed, the number of males in a population decreases, resulting in skewed sex ratios. This may lead to inbreeding and eventually to high juvenile mortality and overall low breeding success. Removing large tuskers also reduces the probability that these longer-ranging loners will mate and exchange genes with females of different sub-populations.

Disease
In the early 1990s, an outbreak of haemorrhagic septicaemia, a cattle disease rare among elephants, was responsible for the deaths of several animals in Sri Lanka's Uda Walawe National Park in May 1994. In small herds of elephants, epidemics such as this could wipe out entire groups.

Western Ghats Mountain Range Into a Single Biogeographic Unit

The South Western Ghats Moist Deciduous Forests [IM0150] lie adjacent to the montane rain forest ecoregion in the southern extent of the Western Ghats Mountain Range. This ecoregion creates a landscape that extends from the lowlands to the highest peaks of one of the bioregion's richest and most diverse ecosystems. The ecoregion is wider in the drier, leeward side of the mountain range, where it drops down to the dry Deccan Plateau to encompass some prime habitat where some of the most important populations of tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), and gaur (Bos gaurus) live. The ecoregion represents a transition area between the South Western Ghats Montane Rain Forests [IM0151] and the South Deccan Plateau Dry Deciduous Forests [IM0209], and includes species from both. Therefore, species richness is high. But more importantly, the ecoregion provides continuity of ecological processes between the lowland and montane ecosystems. The moister forests of this ecoregion support many of the larger vertebrates also found in the dry forest ecoregion but at higher densities.

SCIENTIFIC CODE

(IM0150)

ECOREGION CATEGORY

Indo-Malayan

SIZE

9,200 square miles

STATUS

Critical/Endangered

HABITATS

Description 

Location and General Description

The ecoregion represents the band of moist deciduous forests that surround the montane evergreen rain forests in the southern part of the Western Ghats Mountains. It extends across the southern Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Being part of the Deccan Plateau, the ecoregion has Gondwanaland origins. But the moist deciduous nature of the vegetation is a manifestation of the geological uplift that occurred during the upper Tertiary period and created the Western Ghats Mountain Range, which then began to intercept the southwestern monsoon and create a complex rainshadow. The swath of moist deciduous forests is very narrow on the steeper, windward side of the mountain range, where the southwest monsoon rains promote a wet evergreen forest. But on the shallower leeward side, the drier conditions caused by the rainshadow result in a broader, uneven swath of moist deciduous forests that extends further, into the Deccan Plateau. Rainfall on the leeward side is influenced by the complex landform, with some areas receiving less than a fifth of the 3,000 mm or more of annual precipitation that is deposited higher in the mountains.

Champion and Seth (1968) classify these forests as a Southern Indian Moist Deciduous Forest. The vegetation is characterized by Adina cordifolia, Albizzia odoratissima, Albizzia procera, Alstonia scholaris, Bombax ceiba, Toona ciliata, Dalbergia latifolia, Grewia tiliaefolia, Holoptelea integrifolia, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Lannea coromandelica, Miliusa velutina, Pterocarpus marsupium, Schleichera oleosa, Spondias pinnata, Radermachera xylocarpa, Tectona grandis, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia tomentosa, Vitex altissima, Xylia xylocarpa, and Machilus macrantha (Champion and Seth 1968).

Biodiversity Features

Although it does not serve as home to as many endemic species as the montane rain forests, the moist deciduous forest ecoregion is actually richer in species, harboring more mammal and bird species. Among the eighty-nine mammal species known from here, six are near-endemic species (table 1). But none of the species are strict endemics, entirely limited to this ecoregion. Three mammal species, Nilgiri langur (Semnopithecus johnii), Malabar large-spotted civet (Viverra civettina), and Jerdon's civet (Paradoxurus jerdoni), also extend into the montane rain forests and the semi-deciduous coastal forests on either side, whereas the shrew Suncus dayi is also found in the coastal forests. Layard's striped squirrel (Funambulus layardi) is also found in the adjacent montane rain forest ecoregion.

Table 1 Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.

Family Species 

Soricidae Suncus dayi 

Pteropodidae Latidens salimalii 

Cercopithecidae Semnopithecus johnii 

Viverridae Viverra civettina 

Sciuridae Paradoxurus jerdoni 

Sciuridae Funambulus layardi

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

Among the larger threatened mammal species in this ecoregion are the tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, Nilgiri langur, wild dog (Cuon alpinus), and sloth bear (IUCN 2000). Several of these large species need large spaces. Two of India's most important elephant populations-the Nilgiri-Eastern Ghats population, estimated at more than 6,300 animals, and the Anaimalais-Nelliampathis population, estimated at 1,200 to 2,000 animals (Sukumar 1989)-venture into this ecoregion. The ecoregion is also part of a high-priority (Level I) TCU (Wikramanayake et al. 1999) that also includes the montane rain forests. Some of the smaller threatened species include Jerdon's palm civet (Paradoxurus jerdoni), slender loris (Loris tardigradus), grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura), and Indian giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) (IUCN 2000).

The 322 bird species known from this ecoregion include nine near-endemic species (table 2).

Table 2. Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species.

  Family Common Name Species 

Columbidae Nilgiri wood-pigeon Columba elphinstonii 

Bucconidae Malabar grey hornbill Ocyceros griseus 

Pycnonotidae Grey-headed bulbul Pycnonotus priocephalus 

Timaliidae Rufous babbler Turdoides subrufus 

Corvidae White-bellied treepie Dendrocitta leucogastra 

Muscicapidae Black-and-rufous flycatcher Ficedula nigrorufa 

Muscicapidae Nilgiri flycatcher Eumyias albicaudata 

Pycnonotidae Yellow-throated bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus 

Psittacidae Malabar parakeet Psittacula columboides

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

These species are shared with the South Western Ghats Montane Rain Forests [IM0151], but five species that are endemic to the montane ecoregion are absent from this lower, moist deciduous forest ecoregion.

The globally threatened lesser florican (Eupodotis indica) can be found in patches of grassland habitats in this ecoregion. BirdLife International has included these moist deciduous forests within an EBA, Western Ghats (123) (Stattersfield et al. 1998).

Current Status

Nearly three-fourths of the natural vegetation in the ecoregion has been cleared or converted, and the remaining forests are severely fragmented. However, there are fourteen protected areas that cover almost 5,000 km2 (21 percent), of the ecoregion's intact habitat (table 3).

Protected Area Area (km2) IUCN Category 

Nagarahole 620 II 

Bandipur 1,110 II 

Wynad 430 IV 

Mudumalai 400 IV 

Bilgiri Ranga Swamy Temple [IM0209] 370 PRO 

Megamalai [IM0151] 310 PRO 

Periyar [IM0151] 470 IV 

Anamalai [IM0151] 620 IV 

Eravikulam [IM0151] 90 II 

Chinnar 50 IV 

Parambikulam (extension) 60 PRO 

Peppara [IM0151] 40 IV 

Neyyar 150 IV 

Kalakad 240 IV 

Total 4,960

Ecoregion numbers of protected areas that overlap with additional ecoregions are listed in brackets.

One protected area, Bandipur, exceeds 1,000 km2 and is contiguous with Nagarhole, Mudumalai, and Wyanad. Together this protected area complex includes the largest protected elephant population, estimated at more than 2,500 elephants in India. Two other protected areas that exceed 1,000 km2, Periyar and Anamalai, straddle this and the adjacent South Western Ghats Montane Rain Forests [IM0151]. But eleven of the other reserves are small, less than 500 km2, and four are less than 100 km2. Therefore, many of the protected areas cannot support viable populations of the focal large mammals in this ecoregion.

Types and Severity of Threats

The most significant threat to the remaining habitat and existing reserves is from livestock grazing and associated impacts such as trampling, excessive fodder collection, and burning to create grasslands for livestock (IUCN 1991). These threats are especially severe in Karnataka State. Dam construction for hydroelectricity and irrigation has also caused habitat fragmentation, concentrating elephant populations in forest fragments and exacerbating human-elephant conflicts. Habitat is also being fragmented by forest clearing for plantations. Rodgers and Panwar (1988) present a comprehensive review of the protected area gaps and conservation needs in this ecoregion.

Justification of Ecoregion Delineation

In earlier analyses, MacKinnon (1997), and Rodgers and Panwar (1988) placed the Western Ghats Mountain Range into a single biogeographic unit. But Rodgers and Panwar (1988) acknowledged that the Western Ghats Range is too large to represent a single unit for conservation planning and implicitly divided the mountain range into northern and southern areas. They used the Wyanad as a transition zone from the southern Cullenia-dominated forests and the northern drier dipterocarp forests in this division. We also used this transition to make a more explicit division of the northern and southern ecoregions in the Western Ghats. But in keeping with our definition of ecoregions, we also separated the distinct belt of moist deciduous forests that surround the montane rain forests and placed them in different ecoregions. Thus the moist deciduous forests to the south of the Wyanad area were placed in the South Western Ghats Moist Deciduous Forests [IM0150]. This ecoregion falls within Udvardy's Malabar rain forest biogeographic province.

We used the 1,000-m contour from a DEM and MacKinnon's (1997) map of original vegetation to define the boundary between the montane rain forests and moist deciduous forests. The outer boundaries, between the dry forests in the Deccan Plateau to the east and the distinctly different lowland moist deciduous forests along the Malabar coast to the west, were defined using MacKinnon's (1997) reconstruction of the distribution of the original vegetation types.

Western Ghats Southern Asia : Lush Tropical Evergreen Forest

Many years ago, the Malabar Coast Moist Deciduous Forests [IM0124] ecoregion was a swath of lush tropical evergreen forest that extended along the western coast of the Deccan Peninsula between the Western Ghats Mountains and the Indian Ocean (Champion and Seth 1968). These forests were once inhabited by tigers (Panthera tigris), Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), wild dogs (Cuon alpinus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), and a host of hornbills. But today very little of the natural habitat is left (Rodgers and Panwar 1988), the result of years of forest clearing to establish teak (Tectona grandis) plantations, human settlements, and other human activities such as fires set to clear forests for agriculture and promote grazing lands for livestock. Therefore, the original evergreen character of the forests has changed from the evergreen vegetation to a semi-evergreen condition (Champion and Seth 1968). Many of the large, space-dependent species have disappeared from the ecoregion, victims of habitat loss and fragmentation. This is another ecoregion on the verge of extinction.

SCIENTIFIC CODE

(IM0124)

ECOREGION CATEGORY

Indo-Malayan

SIZE

13,700 square miles

STATUS

Critical/Endangered

HABITATS

Description 

Location and General Description

The ecoregion represents the semi-evergreen forests along India's Malabar Coast, a narrow strip of land lying between the Indian Ocean to the west and extending up to the 250-m contour of the steep Western Ghats Mountains to the east (after Rodgers and Panwar 1988). It extends through the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.

Geologically, the Deccan Plateau-and thus the ecoregion-has Gondwanaland origins. After the Deccan Plate became detached and drifted northward to attach itself to the northern Eurasian continent, the Western Ghats Mountains were created by geological uplift. The mountains then began to intercept the southwestern monsoon rains, creating moister conditions on the western slopes of the range and drier conditions on the eastern side.

The southwestern monsoon brings more than 2,500 mm of annual rainfall to the ecoregion, influencing the vegetation. The southern parts of the ecoregion, in Kerala State, receive more rainfall, and the vegetation has responded by being tropical wet evergreen in the south with a gradual trend tending to drier conditions to the north.

The original vegetation along the west coast of the Deccan Peninsula was tropical evergreen (Champion and Seth 1968). But the forests have been largely replaced or interspersed with teak, giving the vegetation a semi-deciduous character; the teak is now considered indicative of a secondary successional stage or presence of plantations.

Champion and Seth (1968) characterized these southern moist mixed deciduous forests with the following species: Tetrameles nudiflora, Stereospermum personatum, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Ficus nervosa, Ficus glomerata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Salmalia malabarica, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia tomentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Lannea coromandelica, Madhuca indica, Garuga pinnata, Syzygium cumini, Olea dioica, Pouteria tomentosa, Bridelia retusa, Mangifera spp., and Actinodaphne angustifolia. There is generally a second story of Erythrina variegata, Butea monosperma, Wrightia tinctoria, Bauhinia racemosa, and Zizyphus rugosa and a shrub layer of Flacourtia spp., Woodfordia fruticosa, Meyna laxiflora, and Carissa congesta (Puri et al. 1989). Along the northern coast of Karnataka State several patches of moist deciduous forests are represented by an association of Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Tectona grandis, and Dillenia pentagyna (Pascal et al. 1982), representing the drier climatic conditions. The Myristica swamps and the inland lagoons represent distinct habitat types within this ecoregion (Rodgers and Panwar 1988) that are now endangered.

Biodiversity Features

The ecoregion's mammal fauna, estimated at ninety-seven mammal species, includes five near-endemic species and a single small rodent species that is strictly endemic to this ecoregion (table 1). The near-endemic species are shared with the ecoregions along the Western Ghats Mountain Range. Many of the other species, especially the larger mammals, are widespread throughout the Indian subcontinent but are threatened by shrinking habitat. The threatened species include the Asian elephant, gaur (Bos gaurus), slender loris (Loris tardigradus), wild dog, sloth bear, Jerdon's palm civet, and grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura). The habitat in this ecoregion is too fragmented to harbor viable populations of wide-ranging species such as tigers (Wikramanayake et al. 1999). Elephants no longer roam the forests of this ecoregion, although one of India's most important elephant populations ranges along the Nelliampathi Hills (Sukumar 1989) adjacent to the southern parts of this ecoregion

Table 1. Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.

Family Species 

Soricidae Suncus dayi 

Cercopithecidae Semnopithecus johnii 

Viverridae Viverra civettina 

Viverridae Paradoxurus jerdoni 

Muridae Petinomys fuscocapillus 

Muridae Rattus ranjiniae*

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

The ecoregion has an estimated 280 bird species, including one near-endemic species, the Malabar grey hornbill (Ocyceros griseus), which is shared with the submontane and montane ecoregions of the Western Ghats Mountains (table 2).

Table 2. Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species.

Family Common Name Species 

Bucconidae Malabar grey hornbill Ocyceros griseus

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

The ecoregion also harbors several other species of conservation importance, including the globally threatened lesser florican (Eupodotis indica), a grassland species whose range fringes on this ecoregion. Other species such as the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), Indian grey hornbill (Ocyceros birostris), and great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), though not threatened, are nevertheless sensitive to disturbances and can be used as focal species for conservation.

Current Status

More than 95 percent of the ecoregion's natural habitat has been cleared or converted. The moist southern forests have been converted into coconut plantations and rice paddies and the northern forests into teak, rosewood, and rubber plantations. No large blocks of intact forest habitat now exist, although several smaller forest fragments have been preserved by local people as sacred groves.

The three protected areas in this ecoregion cover a mere 300 km2 

Table 3. WCMC (1997) Protected Areas That Overlap with the Ecoregion.

Protected Area Area (km2) IUCN Category 

Sanjay 50 II 

Bhagwan Mahavir 150 IV 

Peechi Vazhani 100 IV 

Total 300  

Ecoregion numbers of protected areas that overlap with additional ecoregions are listed in brackets.

Types and Severity of Threats

Most of the natural forest in this ecoregion has been converted to agriculture and plantations. Extensive teak plantations have created a semi-deciduous vegetation where there used to be evergreen forests. The unique Myristica swamps, limited to parts of northern Karnataka (e.g., Kumta) and Kerala and close to the coast, are being converted to areca and coconut plantations.

Continuing threats to this ecoregion include habitat damage from livestock grazing and trampling. The pastoralists themselves also overexploit the fodder trees and burn large areas to create grasslands. In Karnataka State, huge herds of domestic livestock have become uncontrollable. Meanwhile, Sanjay National Park in Maharashtra is subject to more than a hundred fires every year, and the park staff is not equipped to fight them.

Hydroelectric projects have also flooded large areas of forests; for instance, eleven dams have been constructed along the Periyar River, one of the largest waterways in the state of Kerala. Secondary effects of the dam projects, such as roads, have also allowed more human encroachment, which is causing serious fragmentation of the remaining forests (IUCN 1991).

Justification of Ecoregion Delineation

In an earlier analysis of conservation units of India, Rodgers and Panwar (1988) delineated the coastal moist deciduous forests along the western coast of India as a single conservation unit, the Coastal Plain (5A). In a subsequent regional analysis, MacKinnon (1997) also recognized this unit as a distinct biounit. We retained their classification and placed the lowland moist deciduous forests in the Malabar Coast Moist Deciduous Forests [IM0124]. In doing so, we used MacKinnon's (1997) map of the original vegetation to delineate the ecoregion boundaries. This ecoregion falls within Udvardy's Malabar rain forest biogeographic province.

References

References for this ecoregion are currently consolidated in one document for the entire Indo-Pacific realm.

Indo-Pacific Reference List

Hope for the Rain Forests: Most important ecosystems in the world

Rain Forests are one of the most important ecosystems in the world, and their importance to the well being of our planet is an established scientific fact. Extraordinary in terms of their biological diversity, tropical rainforests are a major resource for medicinal plants and thousands of forest products. They are home to countless species and many unique indigenous cultures, and play a key role in the global ecosystem in regulating weather and producing significant amounts of the world's oxygen.

EXTENT OF RAINFORESTS: Tropical rainforests, clustered around the earth in a band on either side of the equator, cover 1,500,000 square miles, about 2% of the world's total land mass. Almost 60% are located in the Amazonian regions of Brazil, Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Africa and Venezuela. Other regions of the world with significant tracts of tropical rain forests are  Papau-New Guinea, Burma and Indonesia.

Outside of the tropics, temperate rainforests are found in British Columbia, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, California's northern coast, the Caucasus region of Georgia, Norway, Scotland, parts of the Balkans, Japan, Tasmania, Chile, New Zealand and Australia.

BIODIVERSITY: Rainforests contain an incredible variety of different flora and fauna, with the total number of species numbering over 10 million. Rainforests are home to two-thirds of all the living animal and plant species on the planet and it has been estimated that many hundreds of millions of new species of plants, insects and microorganisms are still undiscovered. Tropical forests are regions of the highest biodiversity found anywhere on earth,  far more than any other region. The whole of the North American continent, for example,  is home to approximately 17,000 plants species while a  much smaller area, the Amazonian Basin, has over 50,000.


IMPORTANCE: The rain forests of the world are supremely important to the world ecosystem as climatic and environmental stabilizers. The trees of the rain forests bind up over 200 billion tons of carbon in their bodies, carbon that otherwise might be in the form of carbon dioxide and contribute to the growing greenhouse effect.  Without healthy rain forests, the global warming problem we are now experiencing will seem minor in comparison.

Rainforests also are the source for a large number of products that are of importance to man, including timber, nuts, fruits, oils, and spices and 25% of all prescription pharmaceuticals are derived from plants found there. The medicinal potential and promise of rain forests has barely been touched, and only one in ten tropical rain forest plants have even been studied for medicinal uses.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Rainforests are one of the most important ecosystems in the world, and their importance to the well being of our planet is an established scientific fact. Extraordinary in terms of their biological diversity, tropical rainforests are a major resource for medicinal plants and thousands of forest products. They are home to countless species and many unique indigenous cultures, and play a key role in the global ecosystem in regulating weather and producing significant amounts of the world's oxygen.


 Tropical rain forests are found only in a relatively small area on earth, between the latitudes 22.5 degrees North (Tropic of Capricorn) and 22.5 degrees South of the equator (Tropic of Cancer). Originally covering much vaster areas, rain forests in the world, though man's activities, have been reduced only about 2% of the earth's surface, (about 2.41 millions square miles or 625 million hectares). The largest continuous rain forest is found in the Amazon river basin in South America, much of which lies in Brazil. Indonesia and the Congo Basin in Africa are also home to extensive rain forests as well.

Geographically, the distribution of rain forests is seen in four areas based on four forested continental regions: 1) The Ethiopian/Afrotropical (30%)
2) Australasian (9%)
3) Oriental or Indomalayan/Asian (16%)
4) Neotropical (45%)

Biological diversity is the hallmark of tropical rain forests worldwide but they also share other defining characteristics as well, including  a warm, year-round climate with temperatures ranging from 72-93F (22-34C) and high precipitation levels between 80 and 430 inches of rain each year).

BIODIVERSITY:
 It is estimated that over 50 % of all life on earth is found in the rainforests. The number of species is staggering and may go as high as 50 million. This great biodiversity is a direct function of the favorable year round climate and high precipitation. Other ecosystems in the world, temperate forests and woodlands, pale in comparison to rainforests where biodiversity is concerned.


 RAIN FOREST STRUCTURE:
Tropical rain forests have a characteristic structure that is made up of a number of vertical layers that reach up from the forest floor to the very tops of the tallest trees. The primary layers are: 1) Ground Level, 2) Understory, 3) Canopy and 4) Overstory. An estimated 70-90 percent of life in rain forests exist in the trees, high above the shaded forest floor. Each layer has its own characteristic and unique plant and animal species

 The Ground Level is the forest floor, and in most true rain forests, the overhead vegetation of the layers above prevent very little light from reaching it. Growth on the ground floor is typically sparse, and there is little jungle like vegetation to impede movement. Typically as little as 5 percent or less of the light falling on the rain forests in the world make it to the ground level. The dominant features are decaying tree trunks, seedlings, saplings, fungus and low-growing sparse vegetation. It is the site of much decomposition, an important process for the health of the rain forest ecosystem.

The Canopy refers to the dense ceiling of tree branches with leaves that is formed by the closely spaced trees and can reach to 130 feet above the forest floor. An interesting feature of the canopy trees, which make up the largest proportion of vegetation in the rainforest, is the fact that despite overlapping tree branches, trees of the canopy rarely interlock or even touch. Instead they are usually separated by very small distances, sometimes only a few feet. Because of this animals that dwell in the rain forest canopies survive by having the abilities to climb, leaf, glide or fly.

The dominant function of this level of the rain forest, as well as the Overstory, is the conversion of sunlight to energy through the process known as photosynthesis. This is the process whereby plants convert atmospheric carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and simple sugars. The canopy of rain forests is a true high energy production system and is one of the most important biological engines on Earth for the production of oxygen and absorption of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Without rain forests and their buffering effects, the global warming  now being experienced would accelerate greatly.


The Understory is the layer of the canopy characterized by multiple leaf and branches and is the lower part of the canopy. The lowest part of the understory has a shrub layer that extends no higher than 20 feet or so above the ground and is usually made up of tree saplings and shrubs and smaller plants.

The Overstory is that part of the canopy that consists of the crowns of the most emergent trees. These can soar 20 to 100 feet above the rest of the canopy and some of the highest trees can reach to over 200 feet.

RIVER SYSTEMS IN RAIN FORESTS:

Some of the largest rivers in the world are found in tropical rainforests. These include the Amazon, Orinoco, Negro, Zaire, Madeira and Mekong rivers. These giant rivers are truly immense, and some have thousands of tributaries extending for thousands of miles. Amazing also in their biodiversity, the rivers of the rain forests are increasingly under threat from man and his activities, including pollution, hydroelectric projects, siltation from deforestation and overfishing and commercial exploitation.

Welcome to kerala wild life sanctuaries

Kerala has a forest area of 11,125 sq km, which covers almost 29 percent of the total land area of the state. There are Five National Parks and 13 Wildlife Sanctuaries in Kerala. These parks and sanctuaries cover 2250 sq km, which is 24 percent of the total forest area and 6 percent of the total land area of the state. All these National Parks and sanctuaries are famous tourist destinations and are frequently visited by tourists to experience the enjoyment of watching wildlife in their natural habitat and to get a feel of the scenic excellence of Kerala.

The following are the Wildlife Sanctuaries of Kerala.

Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Tiger Reserve)

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary

Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary

Chenthuruni Wildlife Sanctuary

Peechi-Vaazhaani Wildlife Sanctuary

Chimmini Wildlife Sanctuary

Aaralam Wildlife Sanctuary

Mangalavanam (Bird Sanctuary)

Thattekkaad (Bird Sanctuary)

Periyar wildlife sanctuary:

Also known as the Thekkady Wildlife sanctuary, the Periyar wildlife sanctuary is located in the hills of the Western Ghats spreading over an area of 675 sqkm. With its geomorphology, wildlife, beautiful landscape and the picturesque Periyar lake within, the sanctuary is a major tourism center in Kerala and attracts a very large number of tourists each year. With Over 1800 flowering plants including 171 grass species and 143 species of orchids, 35 species of mammals and 265 varieties of bird species, the Periyar sanctuary is a repository of endemic, rare and endangered flora and fauna. Wild elephants, gaurs, langur, sambar deer, Malabar giant squirrel, flying squirrel, Cobra, viper, krait, hombill, stork, woodpecker, kingfisher, raptor, darter, cormorant, grackle, cluster etc... can be spotted here. Some of the famous tea gardens are also located around this place. Boating and trekking at the Thekkady (Periyar) Wildlife reserve is a memorable experience.

Major attractions of Periyar wildlife sanctuary are boat cruises on the lake, elephant ride, trekking, wildlife photography and bird watching.

Ideal Period of Visit November - April

Vegetation Tropical, a mixture of deciduous, semi-evergreen, and evergreen

Nearest Railway Station Kottayam (120 km)

Nearest Town Kumily (4 km)

Trekking trails Mangaladevi hills, Mullakudy, Thannikudy, Vellimala

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary :

Adjacent to the Anamalai Wildlife Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu, this sanctuary sprawls across 285 sq km and offers a fascinating sight of rare wild animals. It abounds in a variety of trees, mainly teak, neem, sandalwood and rosewood. There are three dams within the Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary, , Parambikulam, Thunakadavu and Peruvaripallam. Parambikulam has the largest population of Gaurs (Indian bisons). The rich fauna includes tigers, leopards, elephants, sambars, tahrs, wild dogs, Indian muntjacs, spotted deers, jungle cats, bonnet macaques, lion-tailed macaques apart from nearly 150 species of birds. There are two watchtowers to observe animals. The place is ideal for boating and trekking. Boating and cruising facilities are available in the reservoirs.

Ideal Period of Visit November - April

Vegetation Scattered patches of grassland and thickly forested

Nearest Railway Station Palakkad (125 km)

Nearest Town Palakkad (125 kms)

Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary :

Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary covers an area of 77 sq km in the Thodupuzha and Udumpanchola talukas of Idukki and occupies the forested area between the Cheruthoni and Periyar rivers. Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary is located at a distance of 40 kms from Thodupuzha. The great reservoir formed by the construction of the Idukki arch dam and dams at Cheruthoni and Kulamavu is a major tourist attraction. Lying at an altitude of 450 - 748m above sea level, the pristine forests and green hills around the area provide ample scope for trekking.

Besides wildlife viewing and trekking, one can enjoy boat cruises on the lake within the sanctuary, which offers a panoramic view of the surrounding areas. Wild Population of Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary includes Elephants, Bison, Sambhar, Deer, Wild Dogs, Jungle Cats, Tiger, Wild Boar etc. The avian population includes Jungle Fowl, Myna, Laughing Thrush, Black Bulbul, Peafowl, Woodpecker, Kingfisher etc.

Ideal Period of Visit December - April

Vegetation Tropical Dense Evergreen Forest

Nearest Railway Station Kottayam (135 km)

Nearest Town Thodupuzha (40 kms)

Get Free Quotes & Details on Best Kerala Wildlife Tour Packages

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary :

Chinnar wild life sanctuary in Idukki district covering an area of 90 sq. km is unique for the thorny scrub forest. Unlike Other Regions in Kerala, Chinnar gets Only 48 Days of Rain. This is the second habitat of the endangered giant grizzled squirrel of India. This sanctuary is situated on either side of the Marayoor - Udumalpet road. The Marayoor sandal forest and the beautiful Thoovanam waterfalls are located here. Traveling along the Karimunthi - Chinnar road one can spot Elephants, Spotted Deer, Sambhar, Hanuman monkey and even Peacocks on either sides of the road. There is a watchtower to observe animals. Early hours of the day is the best time to visit this sanctuary.

Ideal Period of Visit December - April

Vegetation Thorny Scrub Forest, Dry Deciduous Forests

Nearest Railway Station Aluva (200 km)

Nearest Town Ernakulam (130 km)

Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary :

The Wayanad sanctuary is part of the Wayanad plateau and is home to tigers, leopards, elephants and a number of other animals. The sanctuary is an extension of the Bandipur National Park in Kerala at its southern border. Rich in bio-diversity, the sanctuary is an integral part of the nilgiri biosphere reserve, which has been established with the chief objective of conserving the biological heritage of the region. The Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary comprises of deciduous forest.

Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary is home to a number of animals that include monkeys, Elephant, Panther, jungle cat, tiger, civet cat, wild dog, deer, bear and bison. Peacock, babblers, cuckoos, owl, wood pecker and jungle fowl are only a few among the different types of birds seen in the area.

Ideal Period of Visit June to October

Vegetation Moist deciduous forests, Semi evergreen forests

Nearest Railway Station Kozhikode (130 km)

Nearest Town Sulthan Bathery (22 km)

Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary :

The Neyyar reservoir extends for only 9.06 sq km and offers exceptional opportunities for boating. The 1890 metres high Agasthyakoodam hill, named after the legendary Indian sage Agasthya, lies in the premises of this sanctuary. A crocodile rearing centre set up by the Govt. of India, deer farm and lion safari park are the main attractions. The vegetation varies from tropical wet evergreen to grasslands. The park houses reptiles like pythons, cobras and monitor lizards and well-maintained gardens.

Ideal Period of Visit October to March

Vegetation Tropical wet evergreen to grasslands (depending on altitude)

Nearest Railway Station Mullayar

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary :

Located at about 50 km north east of Thiruvananthapuram city in Nedumangad taluk of Thiruvananthapuram district, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary is spread over an area of 53 sq. km. The forests of this sanctuary constitute the catchment of Peppara dam, constructed across Karamana River to supply drinking water to Thiruvananthapuram city and suburban areas. It was declared a sanctuary in 1983 as thanks to the ecological significance of the area.

The place is fascinating for its dam site, thick forest areas, eucalyptus plantations, crystal clear streams and rocky terrains ideal for adventure expeditions. This sanctuary has tropical, evergreen and deciduous forests, and the hilly parts of the sanctuary harbor tropical forests.

Peppara National Park is the natural habitat of tiger, panther, wild dog, elephant, gaur, mouse deer, Nilgiri langur, sambhar, lion tailed macaque, barking deer, wild boar, Malabar squirrel etc.

At Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, there are 13 tribal settlements. The tribes have a fascinating culture untouched by modern life bustling outside the sanctuary.

Three major forest belts characterize the flora of the Peppara National Park. These are: southern hilltop tropical evergreen forests that occur mostly on the hills with an altitude of above 1000m, west coast semi- evergreen forests that found atop the hills with an altitude of 150 to 1050m and southern moist mixed deciduous forests found in the lower slopes of the hills and cover more than 60% of the area.

Ideal Period of Visit October to March

Vegetation Tropical evergreen forests, semi- evergreen forests, moist mixed deciduous forests

Nearest Railway Station Trivandrum

Chenthuruni Wildlife Sanctuary :

The Chenthuruni or Shendurni Wildlife Sanctuary is situated 70 km far from Kollam town on the Kollam-Shencotta Road . The Chenthuruni River flows through the midst of this sanctuary. Both shores of the river is covered with thick forests which is home to a lot of diffrent species of trees and animals like , Elephans, Deer, Tigers, diffrent kinds of Monkeys etc...

Steep and rugged peaks surround the sanctuary, which is dotted by several breathtaking ravines.

Ideal Period of Visit March to July

Vegetation tropical evergreen and mixed deciduous forests

Nearest Railway Station Kollam

Peechi Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary :

Peechi Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary, a 125 sq km sanctuary, is situated at about 20 km east of Thrissur, in the catchment area of the Peechi and Vazhani dams. The Sanctuary comprising of the dense, moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests is a haven for a variety of wildlife that consists of many rare species of animals, birds and plants as well. With more than 50 species of orchids, medicinal plants, rosewood and teakwood the sanctuary is a veritable treasure trove of rare flora and fauna. Among the wildlife, one can find animals like leopards, sambar deer, wild dogs, barking deer, spotted deer, bison and elephants.

The place is congenial for boating and trekking.

Ideal Period of Visit October To March

Vegetation tropical evergreen and mixed deciduous forests dense, moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests

Nearest Railway Station Thrissur, 23 kms

Chimmini Wildlife Sanctuary :

Chimmini Wildlife Sanctuary, is situated at the Mukundapuram taluk of Thrissur District. It covers an area of 87 sq km. The sanctuary has a dam which was constructed across the Chimmini River at 75 m above the sea level. A part of the Chimmini wildlife sanctuary lies adjacent to the Peechi-Vazhani wildlife sanctuary and the other part to Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary. All kinds of flora found in rain forest are seen here. Animals like leopard, tiger, elephant, bear, wild pigs, wild bison etc are commonly seen here. Vegetation here consists of Evergreen forests, Semi evergreen forests. Leaf shedding forests.

Ideal Period of Visit October To March

Vegetation Evergreen forests. Semi evergreen forests, Leaf shedding forests

Nearest Railway Station Thrissur, 35 kms

Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary :

The Aralam sanctuary is the northern most wildlife sanctuary of Kerala and is located on the western slopes of the Western Ghats. The sanctuary is only 55 sq.kms in area. The elevation varies from 50m to 1145m and the highest peak of Katti Betta, covered with tropical and semi- evergreen forests rises to a majestic height of 1145 m above sea level. A variety of flora and fauna endemic to the Western Ghats is found here. Herds of deer, elephants, boar and bison are quite common. Leopards, Jungle Cats and various types of Squirrels have also been sighted. The vegetation here consists of tropical evergreen and semievergreen forests. There are about 490 ha of teak and eucalyptus plantations within the forest area.

Ideal Period of Visit June to October

Vegetation Tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests

Nearest Railway Station Thalassery, 35 kms

Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary :

Mangalavanam is an ecologically sensitive area situated at the centre of Kochi city. This mangrove forest is home to many exotic and rare varieties of migratory birds. Mangalavanam gained importance because of the mangrove vegetation and also due to the congregation of communally breeding birds. The most common bird species found at Mangalavanarn were Little Cormorant and Black-crowned Night Heron. Highest species richness of birds was found in the months of May and July.

Ideal Period of Visit May and July

Vegetation Mangrove vegetation

Nearest Railway Station Kochi

Thattekkad Wildlife Sanctuary : Also known as Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary :

Thattekkad Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the Kothamangalam Taluk of Ernakulam district on the northern bank of the Periyar river. One of the most famous landmarks in Kerala, Thattekkad bird sanctuary is home to almost 500 species of exotic birds. The thick tropical deciduous and evergreen cover is a safe haven for these winged creatures.

Dr Salim Ali, the renowned ornithologist of India, described Thattekad in the 1930's as the richest bird habitat in peninsular India, comparable only with the eastern Himalayas. This bird sanctuary, a peninsular land of 25 sq. km is covered with deciduous forests and plantation of rosewood, teak etc.

The fascinating birds that are found here are Bee-eater, Falcon Grey, Jungle Fowl, Black Winged Kite, Shrike, Crimson-throated Barbet, Ceylon Frogmoth, Sunbird, Night Heron, Blue winged parakeet, white-breasted water hen, rose-billed Roller, Hornbill, etc. This rare haven offers picturesque landscapes, and is a nature lover's paradise.

Tiger Temple: Forest temple and sanctuary for wild animals

Everybody makes ill-informed decisions. This photograph, taken at a popular tourist stop in Kanchanaburi, Thailand, is a testament to a recent one of mine. Photos like these are the bread and butter of the so-called “Tiger Temple,” a sprawling monastery-cum-wildlife-sanctuary a few hours outside Bangkok, which functions both as a draw for tourist dollars and a home to over 70 tigers and other animals roaming the grounds.

Correction: The tigers aren’t exactly roaming. The tigers I saw during my visit were all chained, so that in the afternoons, paying visitors like yours truly can sign a quick waiver and dish over 500 baht — $16, roughly the equivalent of a (legal) massage in Bangkok — to get up close and personal with the tigers at the “Tiger Canyon.”

There, the animals are chained up and trained to sit quietly while tourists pose next to them. For an extra 1000 baht ($32), you can get your picture taken sitting on a tiger’s back, etc.

As Bryan wrote here last week, wild tiger populations across the globe are in dismal shape. Though by some estimates there are over 10,000 tigers in captivity in the U.S. alone, there are less than 3,500 wild tigers in the entire world today. Their numbers have suffered from habitat loss, loss of prey from human hunting, and poaching for their skins, body parts and bones, which are used for medicinal purposes. The same day I visited the temple, an article ran in the Bangkok Post that an enormous wildlife trafficking ring was broken up in Hanoi, a hub for the illegal wildlife trade in Asia. Over 1300 pounds of rare animal bones, including tiger and elephant bones, were confiscated in the raid.

The Tiger Temple’s past – and, according to critics, its present — is also linked with the lucrative tiger trade. According to the organization, the first tiger cub arrived at the monastery in 1999 after her mother was killed by poachers near the Thai-Burma border. The cub, too, had been sold to a businessman to be stuffed, but for whatever reason, was delivered to the temple instead, which had started to gain a reputation for collecting injured animals. That first cub died, but other cubs were later delivered from the hands of poachers to the temple. From those first few rescues, as the story goes, the tiger population has grown to 75 tigers living at the temple today.

To the temple’s critics, however, that population growth is a problem, chiefly because they say the temple is employing tactics which are illegal. A controversial report released in 2008 by Care for the Wild International (CWI) concluded:

The report claims, among other things, that the temple has illegally traded its tigers with tiger breeders in Laos to mix up the temple’s genetic pool,  and that the temple does not have appropriate permission to breed tigers on property or enough information about the tigers origins or genetic makeup to meet international criteria for aiding tigers’ conservation. The report also writes the tigers are at risk of malnourishment and routinely handled too roughly by staff. The temple has denied wrongdoing or mistreatment of the animals.

Why are the temple’s tigers so tolerant of humans hanging around them? Despite rumors, CWI did not find any evidence of the tigers’ being drugged to stay docile for the tourists, nor has there been any other hard evidence found to indicate drugs are used. On the day that I visited, I asked Archie Ezekiel, a Canadian backpacker and volunteer at the temple, why the tigers seemed so mellow. He said, in line with the temple’s literature, that the tigers had just been fed (chicken and vitamin supplements) and were taking their regular afternoon snooze. “No matter what you do with animals there’s going to be controversy,” Ezekiel said. In the afternoon, he told me, there is a special session when visitors can observe cubs playing outside in less restrictive conditions. “There is no way you can tell me those animals are drugged.”

When I asked if he felt like this was a positive place for tiger conservation, Ezekiel said given the shrinking numbers of tigers in the wild, he did. “If this is what we have to do for people to see these amazing animals, then I’m all for it.”

But perception is everything, and places that put tigers on display as tame creatures could actually be damaging their cause. Dr. Jan Schmidt-Burbach, the wildlife veterinary program officer of the World Society for the Protection of Animals, writes in an email: “Breeding tigers to such numbers in captivity might lead to the misconception that there are plenty of tigers, and protection of those dangerous tigers in the wild is not required anymore.” Schmidt-Burbach, who is based in Bangkok and has visited the temple himself, goes on to say:

It’s undeniable that it was striking to see the tigers so close. They are gorgeous, strong and scary. But knowing that in the abstract — or at the least from behind some fence — is more than enough. Some human-tiger incidents have been reported at the temple and other places like it, but nothing disastrous has happened yet. When and if it does, unfortunately, it’s the tigers that are very likely going to pay for it.
Perhaps naively, I didn’t really feel like I was in danger that day posing with the tigers. But I do have a moral hangover from the whole thing. As somebody who tries to avoid zoos, I personally found the spectacle of tigers on chains a little depressing, a feeling that was confirmed when I watched a staffer swat a beautiful cub on the nose. It wasn’t a hard swat, but there was something out of the natural order about watching a human discipline a tiger for a photo op. I guess that’s why this kind of role reversal is usually a circus act – and not an act of conservation.

Experience the wild life of Kerala

With dense tropical evergreen rain forests teeming with exotic wildlife, Kerala’s hill station brings out the wild side of the state. With twelve wildlife sanctuaries and two national Parks across the Western Ghats you’re in an exciting animal kingdom. From the enchanting elephant to the majestic tiger, here you’ll find a variety that will excite any wildlife enthusiast.

Where else could you watch a rare lion-tailed macaque leaping grace fully through the trees. The exquisite Nilgiri tahr’Unafraid to cross your path. The swiftly darting spotted deer. The piercing eyes of a brown fish owl…

And as night settles over then evergreen forests and the air comes alive with a million sounds of the jungle, you know it deep inside. There is indeed a wild side to life.